Submitted by: Bindu Sharma
Students learn best when they are actively involved in the process. Researchers report that, regardless of the subject matter, students working in small groups tend to learn more of what is taught and retain it longer than when the same content is presented in other instructional formats. Students who work in collaborative groups also appear more satisfied with their classes. (Sources: Beckman, 1990; Chickering and Gamson, 1991; Collier, 1980; Cooper and Associates, 1990; Goodsell, Maher, Tinto, and Associates, 1992; Johnson and Johnson, 1989; Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991; Kohn, 1986; McKeachie, Pintrich, Lin, and Smith, 1986; Slavin, 1980, 1983; Whitman, 1988)
Various names have been given to this form of teaching, and there are some distinctions among these: cooperative learning, collaborative learning, collective learning, learning communities, peer teaching, peer learning, reciprocal learning, team learning, study circles, study groups, and work groups. But all in all, there are three general types of group work: informal learning groups, formal learning groups, and study teams (adapted from Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991).
Informal learning groups are ad hoc temporary clusterings of students within a single class session. Informal learning groups can be initiated, for example, by asking students to turn to a neighbor and spend two minutes discussing a question you have posed. You can also form groups of three to five to solve a problem or pose a question. You can organize informal groups at any time in a class of any size to check on students’ understanding of the material, to give students an opportunity to apply what they are learning, or to provide a change of pace.
Formal learning groups are teams established to complete a specific task, such as perform a lab experiment, write a report, carry out a project, or prepare a position paper. These groups may complete their work in a single class session or over several weeks. Typically, students work together until the task is finished, and their project is graded.
Study teams are long-term groups (usually existing over the course of a semester) with stable membership whose primary responsibility is to provide members with support, encouragement, and assistance in completing course requirements and assignments. Study teams also inform their members about lectures and assignments when someone has missed a session. The larger the class and the more complex the subject matter, the more valuable study teams can be.
The suggestions below are designed to help you set up formal learning groups and study teams. If you have never done group work in your classes, you might want to experiment first with informal learning groups. Two other tools, “Leading a Discussion” and “Supplements and Alternatives to Lecturing: Encouraging Student Participation,” describe a variety of easy ways to incorporate informal learning groups into your courses. “Helping Students Write Better in All Courses” discusses informal collaborative writing activities.
General Strategies
Plan for each stage of group work. When you are writing your syllabus for the course, decide which topics, themes, or projects might lend themselves to formal group work. Think about how you will organize students into groups, help groups negotiate among themselves, provide feedback to the groups, and evaluate the products of group work.
Carefully explain to your class how the groups will operate and how students will be graded. As you would when making any assignment, explain the objectives of the group task and define any relevant concepts. In addition to a well-defined task, every group needs a way of getting started, a way of knowing when its task is done, and some guidance about the participation of members. Also explain how students will be graded. Keep in mind that group work is more successful when students are graded against a set standard than when they are graded against each other (on a curve). See “Grading Practices.” (Source: Smith, 1986)
Give students the skills they need to succeed in groups. Many students have never worked in collaborative learning groups and may need practice in such skills as active and tolerant listening, helping one another in mastering content, giving and receiving constructive criticism, and managing disagreements. Discuss these skills with your students and model and reinforce them during class. Some faculty use various exercises that help students gain skills in working in groups (Fiechtner and Davis, 1992). See “Leading a Discussion” for examples of guidelines for participating in small groups. (Sources: Cooper, 1990; Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991)
Consider written contracts. Some faculty give students written contracts that list members’ obligations to their group and deadlines for tasks (Connery, 1988).
Designing Group Work
Create group tasks that require interdependence. The students in a group must perceive that they “sink or swim” together, that each member is responsible to and dependent on all the others, and that one cannot succeed unless all in the group succeed. Knowing that peers are relying on you is a powerful motivator for group work (Kohn, 1986). Strategies for promoting interdependence include specifying common rewards for the group, encouraging students to divide up the labor, and formulating tasks that compel students to reach a consensus. (Source: Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991)
Make the group work relevant. Students must perceive the group tasks as integral to the course objectives, not just busywork. Some faculty believe that groups succeed best with tasks involving judgment. As reported by Johnson, Johnson, and Smith (1991), for example, in an engineering class, a faculty member gives groups a problem to solve: Determine whether the city should purchase twenty-five or fifty buses. Each group prepares a report, and a representative from each group is randomly selected to present the group’s solution. The approaches used by the various groups are compared and discussed by the entire class. Goodsell, Maher, Tinto, and Associates (1992, pp. 75-79) have compiled a detailed bibliography of discipline-specific efforts in collaborative learning that can be useful for developing tasks and activities.
Create assignments that fit the students’ skills and abilities. Early in the term, assign relatively easy tasks. As students become more knowledgeable, increase the difficulty level. For example, a faculty member teaching research methods begins by having students simply recognize various research designs and sampling procedures. Later, team members generate their own research designs. At the end of the term, each team prepares a proposal for a research project and submits it to another team for evaluation. (Source: Cooper and Associates, 1990)
Assign group tasks that allow for a fair division of labor. Try to structure the tasks so that each group member can make an equal contribution. For example, one faculty member asks groups to write a report on alternative energy sources. Each member of the group is responsible for research on one source, and then all the members work together to incorporate the individual contributions into the final report. Another faculty member asks groups to prepare a “medieval newspaper.” Students research aspects of life in the Middle Ages, and each student contributes one major article for the newspaper, which includes news stories, feature stories, and editorials. Students conduct their research independently and use group meetings to share information, edit articles, proofread, and design the pages. (Sources: Smith, 1986; Tiberius, 1990)
Set up “competitions” among groups. A faculty member in engineering turns laboratory exercises into competitions. Students, working in groups, design and build a small-scale model of a structure such as a bridge or column. They predict how their model will behave when loaded, and then each model is loaded to failure. Prizes are awarded to the groups in various categories: best predictions of behavior, most efficient structure, best aesthetics. (Source: Sansalone, 1989)
Consider offering group test taking. On a group test, either an in-class or take-home exam, each student receives the score of the group. Faculty who have used group exams report that groups consistently achieve higher scores than individuals and that students enjoy collaborative test taking (Hendrickson, 1990; Toppins, 1989). Faculty who use this technique recommend the following steps for in-class exams:
Assign group work at the beginning of the term so that students develop skills for working in groups.
Use multiple-choice tests that include higher-level questions. To allow time for discussion, present about twenty-five items for a fifty-minute in-class exam.
Divide students into groups of five.
Have students take the test individually and turn in their responses before they meet with their group. Then ask the groups to arrange themselves in the room and arrive at a group consensus answer for each question. Score the individual and group responses and prepare a chart showing the average individual score of each group’s members, the highest individual score in each group, and the group’s consensus score. Ninety-five percent of the time, the group consensus scores will be higher than the average individual scores (Toppins, 1989).
For more information on group exams, see “Quizzes, Tests, and Exams.”
Organizing Learning Groups
Decide how the groups will be formed. Some faculty prefer randomly assigning students to groups to maximize their heterogeneity: a mix of males and females, verbal and quiet students, the cynical and the optimistic (Fiechtner and Davis, 1992; Smith, 1986). Some faculty let students choose with whom they want to work, although this runs the risk that groups will socialize too much and that students will self-segregate (Cooper, 1990). Self-selected groups seem to work best in small classes, for classes of majors who already know one another, or in small residential colleges (Walvoord, 1986). Still other instructors prefer to form the groups themselves, taking into account students’ prior achievement, levels of preparation, work habits, ethnicity, and gender (Connery, 1988). They argue for making sure that members of each group are exclusively graded students or exclusively pass/ not pass students and that well-prepared students be placed in groups with other well-prepared students. Other faculty, however, try to sprinkle the more able students evenly among the groups (Walvoord, 1986). A middle ground, proposed by Walvoord (1986), is to ask students to express a preference, if they wish, then make the assignments yourself. You could, for example, ask students to write down the names of three students with whom they would most like to work.
Be conscious of group size. In general, groups of four or five members work best. Larger groups decrease each member’s opportunity to participate actively. The less skillful the group members, the smaller the groups should be. The shorter amount of time available, the smaller the groups should be. (Sources: Cooper, 1990; Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991; Smith, 1986)
Keep groups together. When a group is not working well, avoid breaking it up, even if the group requests it. The addition of the floundering group’s members to ongoing groups may throw off their group process, and the bailed-out troubled group does not learn to cope with its unproductive interactions. (Source: Wolvoord, 1986)
Help groups plan how to proceed. Ask each group to devise a plan of action: who will be doing what and when. Review the groups’ written plans or meet with each group to discuss its plan.
Regularly check in with the groups. If the task spans several weeks, you will want to establish checkpoints with the groups. Ask groups to turn in outlines or drafts or to meet with you.
Provide mechanisms for groups to deal with uncooperative members.
Walvoord (1986) recommends telling the class that after the group task is completed, each student will submit to the instructor an anonymous assessment of the participation of the other group members: who did extra work and who shirked work. If several people indicate that an individual did less than a fair share, that person could receive a lower grade than the rest of the group. This system works, says Walvoord, if groups have a chance in the middle of the project to discuss whether any members are not doing their share. Members who are perceived as shirkers then have an opportunity to make amends. Here are some other options for dealing with shirkers:
Keep the groups at three students: it is hard to be a shirker in a small group.
Make it clear that each group must find its own way to handle unproductive group behavior.
Allow the groups, by majority vote, to dismiss a member who is not carrying a fair share. Students who are dropped from a group must persuade the group to reconsider, find acceptance in another group, or take a failing grade for the project.
Perhaps the best way to assure comparable effort among all group members is to design activities in which there is a clear division of labor and each student must contribute if the group is to reach its goal. (Sources: Connery, 1988; Walvoord, 1986)
Evaluating Group Work
Ensure that individual student performance is assessed and that the groups know how their members are doing. Groups need to know who needs more assistance in completing the assignment, and members need to know they cannot let others do all the work while they sit back. Ways to ensure that students are held accountable include giving spot quizzes to be completed individually and calling on individual students to present their group’s progress. (Source: Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991)
Give students an opportunity to evaluate the effectiveness of their group. Once or twice during the group work task, ask group members to discuss two questions: What action has each member taken that was helpful for the group? What action could each member take to make the group even better? At the end of the project, ask students to complete a brief evaluation form on the effectiveness of the group and its members. The form could include items about the group’s overall accomplishments, the student’s own role, and suggestions for changes in future group work. Rau and Heyl (1990) have developed a form that can be used for an interim or final evaluation. (Sources: Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991; Walvoord, 1986)
Decide how to grade members of the group. Some faculty assign all students in the group the same grade on the group task. Grading students individually, they argue, inevitably leads to competition within the group and thus subverts the benefits of group work. Other faculty grade the contribution of each student on the basis of individual test scores or the group’s evaluation of each member’s work. If you assign the same grade to the entire group, the grade should not account for more than a small part of a student’s grade in the class (perhaps a few bonus points that would raise a test score from a B - to a B). (Sources: Cooper, 1990; Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991)
Dealing with Student and Faculty Concerns About Group Work
“I paid my tuition to learn from a professor, not to have to work with my classmates, who don’t know as much.” Let students know at the beginning of the term that you will be using some group techniques. Students who are strongly antagonistic can drop your class and select another. Inform students about the research studies on the effectiveness of collaborative learning and describe the role it will play in your course. Invite students to try it before deciding whether to drop the class. (Source: Cooper and Associates, 1990)
“Our group just isn’t working out.” Encourage students to stick with it. Changing group membership should really be a last resort. Help your students learn how to be effective group members by summarizing for them some of the information in “Leading a Discussion” and “Encouraging Student Participation in Discussion.”
“Students won’t want to work in groups.” Some students may object, in part because most of their education has been based on individual effort, and they may feel uncomfortable helping others or seeking help. The best advice is to explain your rationale, design well-structured meaningful tasks, give students clear directions, set expectations for how team members are to contribute and interact, and invite students to try it. (Source: Cooper and Associates, 1990)
“Students won’t work well in groups.” Most students can work well in groups if you set strong expectations at the beginning of the term, informally check in with groups to see how things are going, offer assistance as needed, and provide time for groups to assess their own effectiveness. Some groups may indeed have problems, but usually these can be resolved. See “Encouraging Student Participation in Discussion” for suggestions on how to minimize monopolizers, draw out
“If I do group work, I won’t be able to cover as much material during the semester as I do when I lecture.” Yes, adding group work may mean covering fewer topics. But research shows that students who work in groups develop an increased ability to solve problems and evidence greater understanding of the material. Some instructors assign additional homework or readings or distribute lecture notes to compensate for less material “covered” in class. (Source: Cooper and Associates, 1990)
Setting Up Study Teams
Tell Students about the benefits of study teams. Study teams meet regularly outside of class to study together, read and review course material, complete course assignments, comment on each other’s written work, prepare for tests and exams, and help each other with difficulties that are encountered in class. Study teams are guided by the notions that students can often do as a group what they cannot do by themselves and that students can benefit from peer teaching-explanations, comments, and instruction from their coursemates.
Explain how study teams work. Study teams can work in a number of ways. In one model, all students read the assignments but each member agrees to provide to the group in-depth coverage of a particular segment of the material and to answer as fully as possible whatever questions other members of the study team might raise. In this model, then, each member agrees to study all the material yet each also tries to become an “expert” in a certain area of the material.
In another model, the teams’ activities vary from meeting to meeting. For example, at one meeting, teams might review class notes to see whether there is agreement on the most important points of the lecture or discussion. In another session, teams might go over a class quiz or test to ensure that all team members clearly understand each of the questions, especially those that were answered incorrectly by one or more members. Another session might be devoted to reviewing problem sets or exchanging drafts of written papers for peer editing.
In a third model, the main agenda for each study team session is a set of study questions. Early in the term, the study questions are provided by the professor or graduate student instructors. After three or four weeks, each team member must bring a study question related to the week’s lecture material to the team meeting. The questions structure the discussion and are modified, discarded, or replaced by the group as the session proceeds. At the session’s end, the study questions that the group chooses as the most valuable are turned in for review by the instructor. You can let students decide for themselves how to structure their study teams, or you can offer advice and suggestions. (Sources: Gushy, 1988; Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991; Light, 1992; “Study Groups Pay Off,” 1991)
If Study teams are optional, offer students extra credit for participation. For example, students who are members of an official study team might get bonus points for each assignment, based on the average grade received by the individual group members. (Source: “Study Groups Pay Off,” 1991)
Let students know what their responsibilities are as a study team member. Students who participate in study teams agree to do the following:
Prepare before the study team meeting (for example, do all the required reading or problem sets)
Complete any tasks that the group assigns to its members
Attend all meetings and arrive on time
Actively participate during the sessions in ways that further the work of the group
Help promote one another’s learning and success
Provide assistance, support, and encouragement to group members
Be involved in periodic self-assessments to determine whether the study team is working successfully (Is too much work being required? Is the time in study team meetings well spent?)
In addition, let students know that they can improve the effectiveness of their study teams by making sure each session has a clearly articulated agenda and purpose. They can also work more efficiently if all logistical arrangements are set for the semester: meeting time, length, location.
Help students locate meeting rooms. Arrange with your department or campus room scheduler to make available small meeting rooms for study teams. If appropriate, consider using group rooms in the residence halls.
Limit groups to no more than six students. Groups larger than six have several drawbacks: it is too easy for students to become passive observers rather than active participants; students may not get the opportunity to speak frequently since there are so many people; students’ sense of community and responsibility may be less intense in larger groups.
Let students select their own study teams unless you have a large class. Since the groups are designed to last the term and will meet outside of class, give students the opportunity to form groups of three to six members. Arrange one or two open groups for students who do not know others in the class. If students will be selecting their own groups, offer several small group activities during the first three weeks of class and rotate the membership of these ad hoc groups so that students can get to know one another’s interests and capabilities before forming study teams. See “Personalizing the Large Lecture,” “Supplements and Alternatives to Lecturing,” “Encouraging Student Participation in Discussion,” and “The First Day of Class” for ideas on small group activities and how to help students get to know one another.
If your class is very large and letting students select their own groups seems too difficult, have students sign up for teams scheduled to meet at particular times. This means that students will form groups based solely on when they can regularly attend a study team meeting. Try to form the groups by sections rather than for the large lecture class overall. Students in the same section are more likely to know each other and feel a sense of responsibility for their study team. (Source: Walvoord, 1986)
Use a portion of class time for arranging study groups. Announce that study groups will be set up during the third or fourth week of the course. At that time, hand out a description of study teams and students’ responsibilities, and let students talk among themselves to form groups or to sign up for scheduled time slots. Suggest that all members of the study team exchange phone numbers. Encourage the study teams to select one person as the convener who will let all members know where the group is to meet.
Devote a class session to study teams. Ask students to meet in their study teams to review course material or prepare for an upcoming exam or assignment. Use the time to check in with the groups to see how well they are operating. Some faculty regularly substitute study team meetings for lectures. To the extent possible, meet with a study team during an office hour or review the work of a study team sometime during the semester.
08 March, 2009
05 March, 2009
‘NINE GEMS’ FOR TEACHERS - FOR MOTIVATING THE UNMOTIVATED
By C. Radhakrishnan
Many students feel some subjects as "hard and boring". It is difficult to motivate students to invest the time and effort necessary to succeed in those subjects. To tackle this challenge, I have collected a list of ‘Nine Gems’ for keeping students focused and motivated. These ‘Gems’ are developed through constant formal and informal interactions with my humanities students. Indeed, most of these suggestions apply to any subject that students find hard and boring. This encouraged me to share my ‘Nine Gems’ with every one.
Gem 1: Emphasize the most critical concepts continuously. Repeat these concepts in lectures and assignments throughout the session. Include questions relating to these critical subjects in every exam, thus rewarding students for learning, retaining, and, hopefully, applying this knowledge in a variety of contexts.
Gem 2: Provide students with a "visual aid" when possible to explain abstract concepts. Majority of today's students are visual learners. For these students, a simple diagram or flowchart truly can be more valuable than a thousand words in a textbook or a lecture.
Gem 3: Rely on logic when applicable. Point out to students which information is merely "fact" that must be memorised and which information is based upon "logic." Show students how to employ logical thinking to learn and retain new information. For example, in the double-entry bookkeeping system, "debits" equal "credits," and debit entries cause assets to increase. These are "facts" or features of the system; they are not based on logic. However, once the student accepts the system, logic can be used to operate within the system. Continuing the example, if debit entries increase assets, it is logical that credit entries will cause assets to decrease.
Gem 4: Use class-fun activities to reinforce a newly presented topic. After a new concept or subject has been presented via text reading, lecture, or class discussion, allow the students to put the concept into action by completing a class-fun assignment. These assignments can be short, but they must be developed to ensure that the students understand the critical concepts underlying the new topic. Usually, most learning takes place when students are permitted to work in small groups, to refer to their text and notes, and to ask questions to the teacher while completing the assignment. If these class-fun assignments are part of the grading scheme, class behaviour and attentiveness improves.
Gem 5: Help students create a "link" when teaching something new. If the student can "link" the new topic to something already learned, the chances of learning the new topic are greatly increased. Examples of possible links include: prior critical concepts learned in this topic, concepts learned in previous topics, and real life experiences of the students outside the classroom.
Gem 6: Recognise the importance of vocabulary in a topic. Students often struggle with new words/vocabulary in many topics. To understand these topics, students must become comfortable with the new terminology. As topics are presented, new or confusing terms or vocabulary should be identified and introduced to the students. Present "real-world" definitions and alternative terminology, in addition to textbook definitions. One way to help students incorporate the topic vocabulary is to create a glossary on the classroom clip-board where new terminology is added, explained, and illustrated throughout the lesson sessions.
Gem 7: Peer group motivation is very effective. If you can make highly motivated students motivate the less motivated ones then you can save lot of time and energy. For this technique to succeed you must have excellent understanding and rapport with your students.
Gem 8: Treat students with respect. Encouraging and rewarding behaviour is very essential in school teachers. However, some senior students will not respond well to these techniques. Give students their dignity, and they will give you their best efforts.
Gem 9: Hold students to a high standard. If students are not required to maintain a specified level of learning and performance, only the most highly motivated students will devote the time and effort necessary to learn. In contrast, maintaining high standards not only will motivate student learning, it will also be the source of a student’s feelings of accomplishment when those standards are met.
Each of these rules can help motivate even the most lazy student, but Gem 8 and 9 are the most important. If students are not treated with respect and held to a high standard, meticulously following the first seven gems will have much less impact and might end up being an exercise in futility.
Many students feel some subjects as "hard and boring". It is difficult to motivate students to invest the time and effort necessary to succeed in those subjects. To tackle this challenge, I have collected a list of ‘Nine Gems’ for keeping students focused and motivated. These ‘Gems’ are developed through constant formal and informal interactions with my humanities students. Indeed, most of these suggestions apply to any subject that students find hard and boring. This encouraged me to share my ‘Nine Gems’ with every one.
Gem 1: Emphasize the most critical concepts continuously. Repeat these concepts in lectures and assignments throughout the session. Include questions relating to these critical subjects in every exam, thus rewarding students for learning, retaining, and, hopefully, applying this knowledge in a variety of contexts.
Gem 2: Provide students with a "visual aid" when possible to explain abstract concepts. Majority of today's students are visual learners. For these students, a simple diagram or flowchart truly can be more valuable than a thousand words in a textbook or a lecture.
Gem 3: Rely on logic when applicable. Point out to students which information is merely "fact" that must be memorised and which information is based upon "logic." Show students how to employ logical thinking to learn and retain new information. For example, in the double-entry bookkeeping system, "debits" equal "credits," and debit entries cause assets to increase. These are "facts" or features of the system; they are not based on logic. However, once the student accepts the system, logic can be used to operate within the system. Continuing the example, if debit entries increase assets, it is logical that credit entries will cause assets to decrease.
Gem 4: Use class-fun activities to reinforce a newly presented topic. After a new concept or subject has been presented via text reading, lecture, or class discussion, allow the students to put the concept into action by completing a class-fun assignment. These assignments can be short, but they must be developed to ensure that the students understand the critical concepts underlying the new topic. Usually, most learning takes place when students are permitted to work in small groups, to refer to their text and notes, and to ask questions to the teacher while completing the assignment. If these class-fun assignments are part of the grading scheme, class behaviour and attentiveness improves.
Gem 5: Help students create a "link" when teaching something new. If the student can "link" the new topic to something already learned, the chances of learning the new topic are greatly increased. Examples of possible links include: prior critical concepts learned in this topic, concepts learned in previous topics, and real life experiences of the students outside the classroom.
Gem 6: Recognise the importance of vocabulary in a topic. Students often struggle with new words/vocabulary in many topics. To understand these topics, students must become comfortable with the new terminology. As topics are presented, new or confusing terms or vocabulary should be identified and introduced to the students. Present "real-world" definitions and alternative terminology, in addition to textbook definitions. One way to help students incorporate the topic vocabulary is to create a glossary on the classroom clip-board where new terminology is added, explained, and illustrated throughout the lesson sessions.
Gem 7: Peer group motivation is very effective. If you can make highly motivated students motivate the less motivated ones then you can save lot of time and energy. For this technique to succeed you must have excellent understanding and rapport with your students.
Gem 8: Treat students with respect. Encouraging and rewarding behaviour is very essential in school teachers. However, some senior students will not respond well to these techniques. Give students their dignity, and they will give you their best efforts.
Gem 9: Hold students to a high standard. If students are not required to maintain a specified level of learning and performance, only the most highly motivated students will devote the time and effort necessary to learn. In contrast, maintaining high standards not only will motivate student learning, it will also be the source of a student’s feelings of accomplishment when those standards are met.
Each of these rules can help motivate even the most lazy student, but Gem 8 and 9 are the most important. If students are not treated with respect and held to a high standard, meticulously following the first seven gems will have much less impact and might end up being an exercise in futility.
04 March, 2009
Motivating Students – Some Scattered Thoughts……
By C. Radhakrishnan
During my teaching career, I’ve seen many students getting frustrated and cursing our educational system for the lack of concern shown towards labelled ‘under achievers’. Over the past few years, I have tried to take time to get to know my students, to talk honestly with them about who they are and what they want from me, the institutions where I have met them, and their education. They have taught me a great deal. I no longer believe that their motivation is the real issue regarding the ways many of them perform or fail to perform in my classroom.
Even knowing all the problems they carry with them, I always wanted to believe that my classes should be something they cherished and to which they would give themselves over. I wanted the best from students. If I could have had my way, they would have come to me as active learners, seeking assistance and insight at every opportunity. They would have succeeded on academic challenge, and they would have challenged me to teach better than I have ever taught before. They would have questioned every aspect of their education; sought an understanding of the "how's" and "why's" of the factors that touch their curious minds.
Oh, what a wonderful experience that would be ... buy, let's face it, that's not what most students do. What a disappointment! How easy it is to blame them! And how easy it is to get frustrated ... and how easy it is to fall into the belief that they are passive, uninvolved, apolitical airheads. How easy it is to assert that they avoid responsibility, that they never question anything that relieves them of responsibility, and that they often drag other students down with them by using their social networks in the classroom to undermine the value of the lessons being presented to the potentially "good" students. How foolish I was to think I would not have to teach them how to learn!
The fact is - as I had to learn the hard way - classrooms don't have to be deadly, and students who seem unmotivated don't have to remain in the unmotivated stage for very long. Making a change required a great deal of soul-searching and rethinking on my part. And, most difficult to accept, it required that I accept some of the blame for what I - as a representative of the teaching profession - have been given in my students' responses to me.
I've learned that many of them don't know that they have the right to ask for anything other than what they are given. For the most part, they are the products of years of experience in schools where they were essentially told to sit down, shut up, listen, and learn - an experience that taught them that the teacher is the source of all knowledge and that learning is something magically injected into them at some point without their awareness
Actually many students are in school spending their time and money because they want to learn and because they want a better life for themselves. Granted, they often don't know how to acquire what they want or how to make themselves learn what is presented to them. And the sad part is we teachers also never taught them how to learn. But, when asked for their opinions (often a new experience for many of them), they express that there are instructional areas that they have strong opinions about.
• One of the most prominent comments from students regarding what they want from the school experience involves individualized instruction. They all want to have their individual needs met. They want to feel like they are more than part of a crowd, that their individual talents and abilities are respected and deemed worthy.
• They want teachers who are real people, who recognize them as human beings - teachers who care about them -- not just their test performance.
• They want to be challenged, not decimated.
• They want caretakers who check on them regularly, who support their individual learning, who inform them individually of their progress, and who assign a variety of tasks that give them the opportunity to learn in modes that fit their individual styles and that are designed to meet their level of learning.
• They like teachers who talk at their level, who can joke and take a joke, and who let them talk and learn with other students.
• They like clear, complete explanations and concrete examples, thorough (but brief) explanations of difficult concepts, and opportunities to have their questions answered.
When I think about what students want, I know that classes that deliver the same old message of "sit down, shut up, and listen so that you can memorize facts to dump onto a test sheet" probably are not going to motivate them. It seems clear that students are not necessarily unmotivated or unwilling learners; they are simply uninvolved in the depersonalization of the traditional classroom. They are willing to learn; they simply may not be able to endure the way they are taught. I now know that if I really want to see motivation in my students, I have to be motivated to rethink what it is I am doing to them.
During my teaching career, I’ve seen many students getting frustrated and cursing our educational system for the lack of concern shown towards labelled ‘under achievers’. Over the past few years, I have tried to take time to get to know my students, to talk honestly with them about who they are and what they want from me, the institutions where I have met them, and their education. They have taught me a great deal. I no longer believe that their motivation is the real issue regarding the ways many of them perform or fail to perform in my classroom.
Even knowing all the problems they carry with them, I always wanted to believe that my classes should be something they cherished and to which they would give themselves over. I wanted the best from students. If I could have had my way, they would have come to me as active learners, seeking assistance and insight at every opportunity. They would have succeeded on academic challenge, and they would have challenged me to teach better than I have ever taught before. They would have questioned every aspect of their education; sought an understanding of the "how's" and "why's" of the factors that touch their curious minds.
Oh, what a wonderful experience that would be ... buy, let's face it, that's not what most students do. What a disappointment! How easy it is to blame them! And how easy it is to get frustrated ... and how easy it is to fall into the belief that they are passive, uninvolved, apolitical airheads. How easy it is to assert that they avoid responsibility, that they never question anything that relieves them of responsibility, and that they often drag other students down with them by using their social networks in the classroom to undermine the value of the lessons being presented to the potentially "good" students. How foolish I was to think I would not have to teach them how to learn!
The fact is - as I had to learn the hard way - classrooms don't have to be deadly, and students who seem unmotivated don't have to remain in the unmotivated stage for very long. Making a change required a great deal of soul-searching and rethinking on my part. And, most difficult to accept, it required that I accept some of the blame for what I - as a representative of the teaching profession - have been given in my students' responses to me.
I've learned that many of them don't know that they have the right to ask for anything other than what they are given. For the most part, they are the products of years of experience in schools where they were essentially told to sit down, shut up, listen, and learn - an experience that taught them that the teacher is the source of all knowledge and that learning is something magically injected into them at some point without their awareness
Actually many students are in school spending their time and money because they want to learn and because they want a better life for themselves. Granted, they often don't know how to acquire what they want or how to make themselves learn what is presented to them. And the sad part is we teachers also never taught them how to learn. But, when asked for their opinions (often a new experience for many of them), they express that there are instructional areas that they have strong opinions about.
• One of the most prominent comments from students regarding what they want from the school experience involves individualized instruction. They all want to have their individual needs met. They want to feel like they are more than part of a crowd, that their individual talents and abilities are respected and deemed worthy.
• They want teachers who are real people, who recognize them as human beings - teachers who care about them -- not just their test performance.
• They want to be challenged, not decimated.
• They want caretakers who check on them regularly, who support their individual learning, who inform them individually of their progress, and who assign a variety of tasks that give them the opportunity to learn in modes that fit their individual styles and that are designed to meet their level of learning.
• They like teachers who talk at their level, who can joke and take a joke, and who let them talk and learn with other students.
• They like clear, complete explanations and concrete examples, thorough (but brief) explanations of difficult concepts, and opportunities to have their questions answered.
When I think about what students want, I know that classes that deliver the same old message of "sit down, shut up, and listen so that you can memorize facts to dump onto a test sheet" probably are not going to motivate them. It seems clear that students are not necessarily unmotivated or unwilling learners; they are simply uninvolved in the depersonalization of the traditional classroom. They are willing to learn; they simply may not be able to endure the way they are taught. I now know that if I really want to see motivation in my students, I have to be motivated to rethink what it is I am doing to them.
Critical Thinking & Practical Strategies to Promote it in Classroom
By C. Radhakrishnan
Critical thinking has become a hot topic in education today. Even our national boards and state boards recognised its importance and initiated lot of efforts to inculcate critical thinking skills among the students. It is currently taught as an essential learning device for teachers in training at institutes of teacher education. The concept of critical thinking is applied in all subject areas. Dr. Peter Facione states, “Education is nothing more, nor less, than learning to think!”
All educators today agree to the fact that students must become critical thinkers in order to understand and accommodate information, thus becoming a true learner. The ideas and activities mentioned here will help elementary school students develop a variety of critical thinking skills in classes’ two to six. Teachers using these activities will encourage and promote critical thinking among their students.
It may be easier to understand the concepts of critical thinking as it is discussed in terms of student behaviour and performance. Sharon Ferrett in ‘Peak Performance: Success in College and Beyond’ proposes the following:
Attributes of a critical thinker
asks pertinent questions
assesses statements and arguments
is able to admit a lack of understanding or information
has a sense of curiosity
is interested in finding new solutions
is able to clearly define a set of criteria for analyzing ideas
is willing to examine beliefs, assumptions, and opinions and weigh them against facts
listens carefully to others and is able to give feedback
sees that critical thinking is a lifelong process of self assessment
suspends judgment until all facts have been gathered and considered
looks for evidence to support assumption and beliefs
is able to adjust opinions when new facts are found
looks for proof
examines problems closely
is able to reject information that is incorrect or irrelevant
Definitions
The term has become so widely used that critical thinking may mean different things depending on its context and application. Some useful definitions appear on the web site “Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum Project” Longview Community College; Definitions of Critical Thinking .
1. Critical thinking is the development of cohesive and logical reasoning patterns.
2. Critical thinking is deciding rationally what to or what not to believe.
3. The purpose of critical thinking is to achieve understanding, evaluate view points, and solve problems.
Since all three areas involve the asking of questions, we can say that
critical thinking is the questioning or inquiry we engage in when we seek to understand, evaluate, or resolve.
Critical thinkers distinguish between fact and opinion; ask questions; make detailed observations; uncover assumptions and define their terms; and make assertions based on sound logic and solid evidence.
No matter what definition the teacher wishes to use for critical thinking, the
underlying idea is that teachers can teach students to think.
Thinking is a skill ... it can be taught. (Project Zero)
Thirteen essential thinking skills:
Observing
Comparing
Classifying
Imagining
Hypothesizing
Criticizing
Looking for Assumptions
Collecting and Organizing Data
Summarizing
Coding
Interpreting
Problem Solving
Decision Making
- Author Unknown
Bloom's Taxonomy
Finally, the teacher must understand Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives. Bloom lists these “abilities” in ascending order:
1. Knowledge: remembering of previously learned material; recall (facts or whole theories); bringing to mind.
2. Comprehension: grasping the meaning of material; interpreting
(explaining or summarizing); predicting outcome and effects.
3. Application: ability to use learned material in a new situation; apply rules, laws, methods, theories.
4. Analysis: breaking down into parts; understanding organization, clarifying, concluding.
5. Synthesis: ability to put parts together to form a new whole; unique communication; create abstract relations.
6. Evaluation: ability to judge value for purpose; base on criteria; support judgment with reason.
Techniques to Encourage Critical Thinking
Awards: Good Question - Good Thinking - I Found the Answer
Three techniques to improve critical thinking is by encouraging students to ask good questions, practice good thinking, and find answers using resources. You can create a small trophy and certificate for students who exhibit each of these positive critical thinking behaviours. These awards may be used in all subject areas and at anytime. For example, when a student asks a “Good Question”, the trophy goes on the student's desk/table for the day, or until another student gets it. You can even think of giving the student a paper certificate to be taken home.
Good Question Award
A “Good Question” is a question that shows the student is thinking about the
subject, concepts, or ideas under study. Generally, these questions are in the higher areas of Bloom’s Taxonomy; application (in the lower grades), analysis, synthesis, or evaluation. A “Good Question” may also show creativity.
Good Thinking Award
“Good Thinking” reveals that the student is entering the higher thought
processes; analysis, synthesis, or evaluation. “Good thinking” may also involve solving a multi-step problem or coming up with an original idea or creative way to solve a problem. Of course, the teacher must challenge the students with questions that require higher order reasoning.
I Found the Answer Award
The “I Found the Answer” award is given when a student has taken the initiative to look for and find an answer using a resource other than the text. This award will motivate students to find answers, rather than simply accepting “I Don't Know” as the answer. Students through application and practice will learn to use the dictionary, directory, encyclopaedia, index, glossary, maps, and the internet. Also, students should learn to ask people for answers. The best questions for research come out of daily classroom lessons and discussions in all subject areas. The teacher may also pose a “Question of the Day” to be researched.
In order to use these awards to their highest potential, the teacher must be
competent and comfortable in asking higher order questions, accepting more than one possible answer to a question, and practice not answering all student questions. Here adequate preparation and homework by the teacher is also very essential.
Games and Puzzles
Games can be a useful learning tool. While playing games students may apply
their knowledge and skills while interacting in a small group. Most games involve planning, observation, logic and reasoning, calculations of chance, observing, using information, and creating and testing possible solutions. All of these “game skills” are components of critical thinking.
Puzzles come in a wide variety of types from purely academic, which rely on knowledge or reasoning skills, to those which require acute observation, such as a jigsaw puzzle. No matter what the puzzle, the one commonality of all puzzles is they require critical thinking.
Why jigsaw puzzles? In order to complete a jigsaw puzzle students must observe and compare size, shape, colour, and patterns; use trial and error to complete the task; and develop visual memory. Students experience working together towards a common goal, and participate in an activity that requires days or weeks to complete.
Encourages Creativity
SCAMPER is an excellent classroom activity which encourages students to think creatively. In this activity the student looks at an object and develops original ideas about the object and different uses of the object. SCAMPER is an acronym which helps direct students in this process.
Substitute some aspect of it
Combine elements with something else
Adapt or Alter an aspect of it
Minify or Magnify an aspect of it
Put some part of it to other uses
Eliminate an aspect of it
Reverse an aspect of it
Scamper may be used as an independent, small group, or whole class activity.
Students must be allowed to brainstorm ideas, making it clear that all ideas must be accepted. You can have the students work independently for 5 - 7 minutes, and then share their ideas with the class. Teachers may use small groups and develop a scoring system, giving a point for each idea that no other group has written.
What Do They Have in Common?
A simple activity that promotes critical thinking and creativity is listing two words and asking “What do they have in common?” While students may easily see differences among items, finding similarities will be much more challenging. This activity also promotes oral communication and explaining your answer. This may be done individually, with a partner, small groups, or even as a whole class brainstorming session. This activity can be part of your students’ first assignments as they come in the morning. Students can be asked to write an answer and then you can discuss their responses as a whole class.
Teachers should accept any answer that may be explained as a commonality,
being sure students only deal with the attributes of the items and not what they could be or do. For example, for “bell and whistle” I would accept both are “made of metal” and “make a sound” but would not allow “I have both of them.”
For a real challenge, have students write names of objects on a small piece of
paper and put them all in a bag. Each day select a pair of words and challenge the students to recognize “What do they have in common?”
Word Chains
Words Chains is an oral language game that encourages critical thinking by
requiring students to think about items and classify items into categories. The teacher gives a category, and selects a volunteer for the first word. Then each next word must start with the ending letter of the preceding word.
Category - Things found in the ocean
fisH > HerrinG > Ghost craB > BasS > SanD > Darkness
To speed the game along, change the category once either group is unable to quickly answer. Words Chains may be played in a variety of ways: one vs. one, small group vs. small group, half of class vs. half of class, or whole group.
Scoring: If you wish to keep score:
1 Point - correct response
-1 Point - incorrect or repeated response or unable to answer
Words Chains encourages creativity as students try to connect words they know into a classification. You can use Word Chains as short filler when the class is waiting in line and as a whole group thinking activity.
Word Chains Category Ideas
Something you would find in (at) a (n)
school grocery store garage carnival mall doctor’s office laboratory hospital kitchen sports stadium restaurant campsite beach television station barber shop desert skating rink art class purse computer toy store library car post office amusement park arcade museum cruise ship National Park fire station rodeo zoo
things made of: glass, plastic, metal, wood, cloth
things that are soft, hard, fragile, strong, bendable, smooth, heavy, light
things that are bigger than ..., smaller than ..., heavier than ...
things that are connected with a holiday
subject area or the topic under study
geographic names people’s jobs cars plants
electronic devices transportation furniture clothing
things you wear inventions names plants
capitalised words games/toys music/songs animal
Words with Multiple Meanings
A critical thinker looks at words and realises many words may be used in
different ways. Introducing this skill to students will improve their reading and writing. When discussing word meanings the concepts of literal and figurative meanings must be taught.
Classroom Use
Word A Day - Put a new word on the board each morning. Allow students time to think about or look up the word. Discuss later in the day.
Spelling or Vocabulary Lists - Look at the list (word) and ask students what words could have more than one meaning.
New Words - As new words are encountered in class, list them on the blackboard. When you have that extra minute ask students if they remember the meanings or can use them in a sentence. Keep this ongoing list in a corner of the blackboard. Do not erase the words daily. Erase the “old” words when the list becomes more than 5 - 7 words. As the “old” words come down you may add them to a Word Wall, a writing bulletin board, or make a small card for each and put them in a box for future use.
Acronyms
“Acronyms” is a linguistic critical thinking activity which requires some
creativity. Students must create their own meanings for common acronyms. Acronyms are words made up of the initial letters of its meaning, such as SCUBA, self-contained underwater breathing apparatus and SNAFU, situation normal all fouled up. Acronyms may be pronounced letter by letter, such as CPR. Initialism is the term for an abbreviation pronounced as the names of the individual letters. These abbreviations are everywhere and are part of our everyday life. They are businesses (TTL, IBM, TCS), government agencies (NASA, DRDO, ISRO), television networks (BBC, CNN, ESPN), organizations (NATO, UN, SAARC), items (BMW, DVD, VCR), and in cricket (LBW).
Web References:
http://peoplelearn.homestead.com/criticalthinking.html
http://www.criticalthinking.org/k12/k12class/trc.html
Critical Thinking: What It Is and Why It Counts
Foundation for Critical Thinking
Critical thinking has become a hot topic in education today. Even our national boards and state boards recognised its importance and initiated lot of efforts to inculcate critical thinking skills among the students. It is currently taught as an essential learning device for teachers in training at institutes of teacher education. The concept of critical thinking is applied in all subject areas. Dr. Peter Facione states, “Education is nothing more, nor less, than learning to think!”
All educators today agree to the fact that students must become critical thinkers in order to understand and accommodate information, thus becoming a true learner. The ideas and activities mentioned here will help elementary school students develop a variety of critical thinking skills in classes’ two to six. Teachers using these activities will encourage and promote critical thinking among their students.
It may be easier to understand the concepts of critical thinking as it is discussed in terms of student behaviour and performance. Sharon Ferrett in ‘Peak Performance: Success in College and Beyond’ proposes the following:
Attributes of a critical thinker
asks pertinent questions
assesses statements and arguments
is able to admit a lack of understanding or information
has a sense of curiosity
is interested in finding new solutions
is able to clearly define a set of criteria for analyzing ideas
is willing to examine beliefs, assumptions, and opinions and weigh them against facts
listens carefully to others and is able to give feedback
sees that critical thinking is a lifelong process of self assessment
suspends judgment until all facts have been gathered and considered
looks for evidence to support assumption and beliefs
is able to adjust opinions when new facts are found
looks for proof
examines problems closely
is able to reject information that is incorrect or irrelevant
Definitions
The term has become so widely used that critical thinking may mean different things depending on its context and application. Some useful definitions appear on the web site “Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum Project” Longview Community College; Definitions of Critical Thinking .
1. Critical thinking is the development of cohesive and logical reasoning patterns.
2. Critical thinking is deciding rationally what to or what not to believe.
3. The purpose of critical thinking is to achieve understanding, evaluate view points, and solve problems.
Since all three areas involve the asking of questions, we can say that
critical thinking is the questioning or inquiry we engage in when we seek to understand, evaluate, or resolve.
Critical thinkers distinguish between fact and opinion; ask questions; make detailed observations; uncover assumptions and define their terms; and make assertions based on sound logic and solid evidence.
No matter what definition the teacher wishes to use for critical thinking, the
underlying idea is that teachers can teach students to think.
Thinking is a skill ... it can be taught. (Project Zero)
Thirteen essential thinking skills:
Observing
Comparing
Classifying
Imagining
Hypothesizing
Criticizing
Looking for Assumptions
Collecting and Organizing Data
Summarizing
Coding
Interpreting
Problem Solving
Decision Making
- Author Unknown
Bloom's Taxonomy
Finally, the teacher must understand Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives. Bloom lists these “abilities” in ascending order:
1. Knowledge: remembering of previously learned material; recall (facts or whole theories); bringing to mind.
2. Comprehension: grasping the meaning of material; interpreting
(explaining or summarizing); predicting outcome and effects.
3. Application: ability to use learned material in a new situation; apply rules, laws, methods, theories.
4. Analysis: breaking down into parts; understanding organization, clarifying, concluding.
5. Synthesis: ability to put parts together to form a new whole; unique communication; create abstract relations.
6. Evaluation: ability to judge value for purpose; base on criteria; support judgment with reason.
Techniques to Encourage Critical Thinking
Awards: Good Question - Good Thinking - I Found the Answer
Three techniques to improve critical thinking is by encouraging students to ask good questions, practice good thinking, and find answers using resources. You can create a small trophy and certificate for students who exhibit each of these positive critical thinking behaviours. These awards may be used in all subject areas and at anytime. For example, when a student asks a “Good Question”, the trophy goes on the student's desk/table for the day, or until another student gets it. You can even think of giving the student a paper certificate to be taken home.
Good Question Award
A “Good Question” is a question that shows the student is thinking about the
subject, concepts, or ideas under study. Generally, these questions are in the higher areas of Bloom’s Taxonomy; application (in the lower grades), analysis, synthesis, or evaluation. A “Good Question” may also show creativity.
Good Thinking Award
“Good Thinking” reveals that the student is entering the higher thought
processes; analysis, synthesis, or evaluation. “Good thinking” may also involve solving a multi-step problem or coming up with an original idea or creative way to solve a problem. Of course, the teacher must challenge the students with questions that require higher order reasoning.
I Found the Answer Award
The “I Found the Answer” award is given when a student has taken the initiative to look for and find an answer using a resource other than the text. This award will motivate students to find answers, rather than simply accepting “I Don't Know” as the answer. Students through application and practice will learn to use the dictionary, directory, encyclopaedia, index, glossary, maps, and the internet. Also, students should learn to ask people for answers. The best questions for research come out of daily classroom lessons and discussions in all subject areas. The teacher may also pose a “Question of the Day” to be researched.
In order to use these awards to their highest potential, the teacher must be
competent and comfortable in asking higher order questions, accepting more than one possible answer to a question, and practice not answering all student questions. Here adequate preparation and homework by the teacher is also very essential.
Games and Puzzles
Games can be a useful learning tool. While playing games students may apply
their knowledge and skills while interacting in a small group. Most games involve planning, observation, logic and reasoning, calculations of chance, observing, using information, and creating and testing possible solutions. All of these “game skills” are components of critical thinking.
Puzzles come in a wide variety of types from purely academic, which rely on knowledge or reasoning skills, to those which require acute observation, such as a jigsaw puzzle. No matter what the puzzle, the one commonality of all puzzles is they require critical thinking.
Why jigsaw puzzles? In order to complete a jigsaw puzzle students must observe and compare size, shape, colour, and patterns; use trial and error to complete the task; and develop visual memory. Students experience working together towards a common goal, and participate in an activity that requires days or weeks to complete.
Encourages Creativity
SCAMPER is an excellent classroom activity which encourages students to think creatively. In this activity the student looks at an object and develops original ideas about the object and different uses of the object. SCAMPER is an acronym which helps direct students in this process.
Substitute some aspect of it
Combine elements with something else
Adapt or Alter an aspect of it
Minify or Magnify an aspect of it
Put some part of it to other uses
Eliminate an aspect of it
Reverse an aspect of it
Scamper may be used as an independent, small group, or whole class activity.
Students must be allowed to brainstorm ideas, making it clear that all ideas must be accepted. You can have the students work independently for 5 - 7 minutes, and then share their ideas with the class. Teachers may use small groups and develop a scoring system, giving a point for each idea that no other group has written.
What Do They Have in Common?
A simple activity that promotes critical thinking and creativity is listing two words and asking “What do they have in common?” While students may easily see differences among items, finding similarities will be much more challenging. This activity also promotes oral communication and explaining your answer. This may be done individually, with a partner, small groups, or even as a whole class brainstorming session. This activity can be part of your students’ first assignments as they come in the morning. Students can be asked to write an answer and then you can discuss their responses as a whole class.
Teachers should accept any answer that may be explained as a commonality,
being sure students only deal with the attributes of the items and not what they could be or do. For example, for “bell and whistle” I would accept both are “made of metal” and “make a sound” but would not allow “I have both of them.”
For a real challenge, have students write names of objects on a small piece of
paper and put them all in a bag. Each day select a pair of words and challenge the students to recognize “What do they have in common?”
Word Chains
Words Chains is an oral language game that encourages critical thinking by
requiring students to think about items and classify items into categories. The teacher gives a category, and selects a volunteer for the first word. Then each next word must start with the ending letter of the preceding word.
Category - Things found in the ocean
fisH > HerrinG > Ghost craB > BasS > SanD > Darkness
To speed the game along, change the category once either group is unable to quickly answer. Words Chains may be played in a variety of ways: one vs. one, small group vs. small group, half of class vs. half of class, or whole group.
Scoring: If you wish to keep score:
1 Point - correct response
-1 Point - incorrect or repeated response or unable to answer
Words Chains encourages creativity as students try to connect words they know into a classification. You can use Word Chains as short filler when the class is waiting in line and as a whole group thinking activity.
Word Chains Category Ideas
Something you would find in (at) a (n)
school grocery store garage carnival mall doctor’s office laboratory hospital kitchen sports stadium restaurant campsite beach television station barber shop desert skating rink art class purse computer toy store library car post office amusement park arcade museum cruise ship National Park fire station rodeo zoo
things made of: glass, plastic, metal, wood, cloth
things that are soft, hard, fragile, strong, bendable, smooth, heavy, light
things that are bigger than ..., smaller than ..., heavier than ...
things that are connected with a holiday
subject area or the topic under study
geographic names people’s jobs cars plants
electronic devices transportation furniture clothing
things you wear inventions names plants
capitalised words games/toys music/songs animal
Words with Multiple Meanings
A critical thinker looks at words and realises many words may be used in
different ways. Introducing this skill to students will improve their reading and writing. When discussing word meanings the concepts of literal and figurative meanings must be taught.
Classroom Use
Word A Day - Put a new word on the board each morning. Allow students time to think about or look up the word. Discuss later in the day.
Spelling or Vocabulary Lists - Look at the list (word) and ask students what words could have more than one meaning.
New Words - As new words are encountered in class, list them on the blackboard. When you have that extra minute ask students if they remember the meanings or can use them in a sentence. Keep this ongoing list in a corner of the blackboard. Do not erase the words daily. Erase the “old” words when the list becomes more than 5 - 7 words. As the “old” words come down you may add them to a Word Wall, a writing bulletin board, or make a small card for each and put them in a box for future use.
Acronyms
“Acronyms” is a linguistic critical thinking activity which requires some
creativity. Students must create their own meanings for common acronyms. Acronyms are words made up of the initial letters of its meaning, such as SCUBA, self-contained underwater breathing apparatus and SNAFU, situation normal all fouled up. Acronyms may be pronounced letter by letter, such as CPR. Initialism is the term for an abbreviation pronounced as the names of the individual letters. These abbreviations are everywhere and are part of our everyday life. They are businesses (TTL, IBM, TCS), government agencies (NASA, DRDO, ISRO), television networks (BBC, CNN, ESPN), organizations (NATO, UN, SAARC), items (BMW, DVD, VCR), and in cricket (LBW).
Web References:
http://peoplelearn.homestead.com/criticalthinking.html
http://www.criticalthinking.org/k12/k12class/trc.html
Critical Thinking: What It Is and Why It Counts
Foundation for Critical Thinking
03 March, 2009
Judging Schools in the 21st century
By C. Radhakrishnan
Throughout history people make criteria to evaluate and find good schools. Whenever such classification and parameters appear today, I used to think, what skills should a good school impart to students and society? Good infrastructure, well crafted yearly plans and programme schedules, systematic maintenance of records, advertisements given in reputed magazines, management brand, polished English speaking students etc - can these be the important criteria to decide and judge good schools in the 21st century? There are many schools in our villages which cater to the needs of our students and impart quality learning without these lavish, western-ape shows. Such schools never come to the picture because they do it as a divine duty in a selfless way. They impart learning in the mother tongue which the child can understand easily and make the child a critical thinker. For creative thinking, understanding the concept is more important than language in which the child thinks or learns. However, how many are ready to accept this basic principle of ‘real learning’?
Globalisation has brought about widespread use of English and all run behind English. Have you ever thought of the fate of millions of children who are creative, intelligent, critical thinkers, curious and innovative but fail to understand and grasp English? Due to ‘adult ignorance’ these children are forced to learn English and finally they can’t cope - we brand them as ‘under achievers’ or ‘weak scholars’. With this stereotyping we, ‘the educated’ (ignorant of basic learning theories) nail their curiosity and natural instinct to learn. No one in this world can prove with data that all great scientists, mathematicians, administrators, philosophers, men of great artistic talents were with excellent multi-linguistic skills/intelligence. But one fact every one can accept and prove is that they were all excellent learners, observers, critical thinkers and innovators. Thus I argue that the most important criteria to judge a good school must be the skills that a school imparts, considering what the students need, not today, but when they come out of the schools after twelve or fourteen years of education. Schools which can visualise the changes after twelve or fourteen years and design their curriculum to suit the needs of that time can only claim that they are providing quality education.
So, what are the skills good schools should inculcate among learners? The answer is here – skills that students need in the work place after their education. And I believe these would be the broad academic and workplace skills needed by our students in the time to come.
Basic Skills (Language Skill – Any one language)
1. Reading:
Identify relevant facts; locate information in books/manuals; find meanings of unknown words; judge accuracy of reports; use computers to find information.
2. Writing:
Write ideas completely and accurately in letters and reports with proper grammar, spelling, and punctuation, use computers to communicate information.
3. Mathematics:
Use numbers, fractions, and percentages to solve problems; use tables, graphs, and charts; use computers to enter, retrieve, change, and communicate numerical information.
4. Speaking:
Speak clearly; select language, tone of voice, and gestures appropriate to an audience.
5. Listening:
Listen carefully to what a person says, noting the tone of voice and body language; respond in a way that shows understanding of what is said.
Note: I advocate any one language skill because within the next ten years in whatever language we speak or write can be translated in letters and voice (with original modulations) just by the click of a mouse to any language we wish and most of the communication will take place through information technology. This is one of my personal opinions; you may have your own opinions and counter points. Those who disagree with me can read language skills as English Language.
Interpersonal Skills
1. Social:
show understanding, friendliness, and respect for feelings of others; assert oneself when appropriate; take an interest in what people say and why they think and act as they do.
2. Negotiation:
Identify common goals among different parties; clearly present one's position; understand party's position; examine possible options; make reasonable compromises. Online negotiation skill should be given importance.
3. Leadership:
Communicate thoughts and feelings to justify a position; encourage or convince; make positive use of rules or values; demonstrate ability to have others believe in and trust you because of competence and honesty.
4. Teamwork:
Contribute to group with ideas and effort; do own share of work; encourage team members; resolve differences for the benefit of the team; responsibly challenge existing procedures, policies, or authorities.
5. Cultural Diversity:
Work well with people having different ethnic, social, or educational backgrounds; understand the cultural differences of different groups; help the people in these groups make cultural adjustments when necessary.
Personal Qualities
1. Self-Esteem:
Understand how beliefs affect how a person feels and acts; listen and identify irrational or harmful beliefs you may have; and understand how to change them when they occur.
2. Self-Management:
Assess one's own knowledge and skills accurately; set specific, realistic, personal goals; monitor progress towards goal.
3. Responsibility:
Work hard to reach goals, even if task is unpleasant; do quality work; display high standard of attendance, honesty, energy, and optimism.
Thinking Skills (the most important)
1. Creative Thinking:
Use imagination freely combining ideas or information in new ways; make connections between ideas that seem unrelated.
2. Problem-Solving:
Recognize problem; identify why it is a problem; create and implement a solution; watch to see how well solution works; revise as needed.
3. Decision Making:
Identify goals; generate alternatives and gather information about them; weigh pros and cons; choose best alternative; plan how to carry out choice.
4. Visualisation:
Imagine building, object or system by looking at a blueprint or drawing.
Throughout history people make criteria to evaluate and find good schools. Whenever such classification and parameters appear today, I used to think, what skills should a good school impart to students and society? Good infrastructure, well crafted yearly plans and programme schedules, systematic maintenance of records, advertisements given in reputed magazines, management brand, polished English speaking students etc - can these be the important criteria to decide and judge good schools in the 21st century? There are many schools in our villages which cater to the needs of our students and impart quality learning without these lavish, western-ape shows. Such schools never come to the picture because they do it as a divine duty in a selfless way. They impart learning in the mother tongue which the child can understand easily and make the child a critical thinker. For creative thinking, understanding the concept is more important than language in which the child thinks or learns. However, how many are ready to accept this basic principle of ‘real learning’?
Globalisation has brought about widespread use of English and all run behind English. Have you ever thought of the fate of millions of children who are creative, intelligent, critical thinkers, curious and innovative but fail to understand and grasp English? Due to ‘adult ignorance’ these children are forced to learn English and finally they can’t cope - we brand them as ‘under achievers’ or ‘weak scholars’. With this stereotyping we, ‘the educated’ (ignorant of basic learning theories) nail their curiosity and natural instinct to learn. No one in this world can prove with data that all great scientists, mathematicians, administrators, philosophers, men of great artistic talents were with excellent multi-linguistic skills/intelligence. But one fact every one can accept and prove is that they were all excellent learners, observers, critical thinkers and innovators. Thus I argue that the most important criteria to judge a good school must be the skills that a school imparts, considering what the students need, not today, but when they come out of the schools after twelve or fourteen years of education. Schools which can visualise the changes after twelve or fourteen years and design their curriculum to suit the needs of that time can only claim that they are providing quality education.
So, what are the skills good schools should inculcate among learners? The answer is here – skills that students need in the work place after their education. And I believe these would be the broad academic and workplace skills needed by our students in the time to come.
Basic Skills (Language Skill – Any one language)
1. Reading:
Identify relevant facts; locate information in books/manuals; find meanings of unknown words; judge accuracy of reports; use computers to find information.
2. Writing:
Write ideas completely and accurately in letters and reports with proper grammar, spelling, and punctuation, use computers to communicate information.
3. Mathematics:
Use numbers, fractions, and percentages to solve problems; use tables, graphs, and charts; use computers to enter, retrieve, change, and communicate numerical information.
4. Speaking:
Speak clearly; select language, tone of voice, and gestures appropriate to an audience.
5. Listening:
Listen carefully to what a person says, noting the tone of voice and body language; respond in a way that shows understanding of what is said.
Note: I advocate any one language skill because within the next ten years in whatever language we speak or write can be translated in letters and voice (with original modulations) just by the click of a mouse to any language we wish and most of the communication will take place through information technology. This is one of my personal opinions; you may have your own opinions and counter points. Those who disagree with me can read language skills as English Language.
Interpersonal Skills
1. Social:
show understanding, friendliness, and respect for feelings of others; assert oneself when appropriate; take an interest in what people say and why they think and act as they do.
2. Negotiation:
Identify common goals among different parties; clearly present one's position; understand party's position; examine possible options; make reasonable compromises. Online negotiation skill should be given importance.
3. Leadership:
Communicate thoughts and feelings to justify a position; encourage or convince; make positive use of rules or values; demonstrate ability to have others believe in and trust you because of competence and honesty.
4. Teamwork:
Contribute to group with ideas and effort; do own share of work; encourage team members; resolve differences for the benefit of the team; responsibly challenge existing procedures, policies, or authorities.
5. Cultural Diversity:
Work well with people having different ethnic, social, or educational backgrounds; understand the cultural differences of different groups; help the people in these groups make cultural adjustments when necessary.
Personal Qualities
1. Self-Esteem:
Understand how beliefs affect how a person feels and acts; listen and identify irrational or harmful beliefs you may have; and understand how to change them when they occur.
2. Self-Management:
Assess one's own knowledge and skills accurately; set specific, realistic, personal goals; monitor progress towards goal.
3. Responsibility:
Work hard to reach goals, even if task is unpleasant; do quality work; display high standard of attendance, honesty, energy, and optimism.
Thinking Skills (the most important)
1. Creative Thinking:
Use imagination freely combining ideas or information in new ways; make connections between ideas that seem unrelated.
2. Problem-Solving:
Recognize problem; identify why it is a problem; create and implement a solution; watch to see how well solution works; revise as needed.
3. Decision Making:
Identify goals; generate alternatives and gather information about them; weigh pros and cons; choose best alternative; plan how to carry out choice.
4. Visualisation:
Imagine building, object or system by looking at a blueprint or drawing.
24 February, 2009
Teaching & Nonverbal Communication
By C. Radhakrishnan
As teachers we always take care of what we speak in the classroom. But, do you ever think of your nonverbal communication in the classroom? Experts say that nonverbal communication is as important as verbal communication in teaching-learning process.
Why should teachers know nonverbal behaviours?
• Knowledge of nonverbal behaviour will allow you to become better receivers of students' messages.
• You will become a better sender of signals that reinforce learning.
• This method of communication increases psychological closeness between teacher and student.
What are the major nonverbal behaviours?
Major nonverbal behaviours are eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, posture and body orientation, proximity, paralinguistics and humour.
1. Eye Contact is an important means of interpersonal communication which helps control the flow of communication. Teachers who make eye contact open the flow of communication and convey interest, concern, affection and credibility.
2. A facial expression is another major area to be explored for improving nonverbal communication. Smiling is a powerful sign that transmits: happiness, friendliness, warmth, liking and relationship. Thus, if you smile always you will be perceived as more friendly, warm and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and students will react favourably and learn more.
3. Gestures convey a lot to the learners. If you fail to gesture while speaking, you may be perceived as boring, stiff and unanimated. A lively and animated teaching style captures students' attention, makes the material more interesting, facilitates learning and provides a bit of entertainment. Head nods, a form of gesture, communicate positive reinforcement to students and indicate that you are listening. Avoid making typical gestures every time.
4. Posture and body orientation communicate many messages by the way you walk, talk, stand and sit. Standing erect, but not rigid, and leaning slightly forward communicates to students that you are approachable, receptive and friendly. Furthermore, interpersonal contact results when you and your students face each other. Speaking with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling or black board should be avoided; it communicates disinterest to your class. Always talk to the eyes.
5. Proximity: Our cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for interaction with students. You should look for signals of discomfort caused by invading students' space. Typically, in large classrooms space invasion is not a problem. In fact, there is usually too much distance between the teacher and student in Indian classrooms. To avoid this, move around the classroom to increase interaction with your students. Increasing proximity allows you to make better eye contact and increases the opportunities for students to speak.
6. Paralinguistic includes vocal elements such as tone, pitch, rhythm, quality of sound, loudness and modulation. For maximum teaching effectiveness, learn to vary these six elements of your voice. One of the major criticisms is of teachers who speak in a monotone. Students perceive these teachers as boring and dull. Students say that they learn less and lose interest more quickly when listening to teachers who have not learned to modulate their voices.
7. Humour is often ignored as a teaching tool, and it is too often not encouraged in school classrooms. Laughter releases stress and tension for both teacher and student. You should develop the ability to laugh at yourself and encourage students to do the same. It promotes a friendly classroom environment that facilitates better learning.
Obviously, adequate knowledge of the subject matter is crucial to your success; however, it's not the only crucial element. Creating a climate, that facilitates learning and retention demands good nonverbal and verbal skills. To improve your nonverbal skills, record your video and watch it yourself or get the help of a colleague or an expert and find suggestions for refinements. Talking in front of a mirror is also an excellent technique to find and correct negative nonverbal gestures.
References:
1. Kyriacou, Chris (2005); “Essential Teaching Skills”; Nelson Thornes Ltd, UK – High Range School Library, TTL, Mattupatti.
2. http://www.blatner.com/adam/level2/nverb2.htm
3. http://www.fhsu.edu/~zhrepic/Teaching/GenEducation/nonverbcom/nonverbcom.htm
As teachers we always take care of what we speak in the classroom. But, do you ever think of your nonverbal communication in the classroom? Experts say that nonverbal communication is as important as verbal communication in teaching-learning process.
Why should teachers know nonverbal behaviours?
• Knowledge of nonverbal behaviour will allow you to become better receivers of students' messages.
• You will become a better sender of signals that reinforce learning.
• This method of communication increases psychological closeness between teacher and student.
What are the major nonverbal behaviours?
Major nonverbal behaviours are eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, posture and body orientation, proximity, paralinguistics and humour.
1. Eye Contact is an important means of interpersonal communication which helps control the flow of communication. Teachers who make eye contact open the flow of communication and convey interest, concern, affection and credibility.
2. A facial expression is another major area to be explored for improving nonverbal communication. Smiling is a powerful sign that transmits: happiness, friendliness, warmth, liking and relationship. Thus, if you smile always you will be perceived as more friendly, warm and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and students will react favourably and learn more.
3. Gestures convey a lot to the learners. If you fail to gesture while speaking, you may be perceived as boring, stiff and unanimated. A lively and animated teaching style captures students' attention, makes the material more interesting, facilitates learning and provides a bit of entertainment. Head nods, a form of gesture, communicate positive reinforcement to students and indicate that you are listening. Avoid making typical gestures every time.
4. Posture and body orientation communicate many messages by the way you walk, talk, stand and sit. Standing erect, but not rigid, and leaning slightly forward communicates to students that you are approachable, receptive and friendly. Furthermore, interpersonal contact results when you and your students face each other. Speaking with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling or black board should be avoided; it communicates disinterest to your class. Always talk to the eyes.
5. Proximity: Our cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for interaction with students. You should look for signals of discomfort caused by invading students' space. Typically, in large classrooms space invasion is not a problem. In fact, there is usually too much distance between the teacher and student in Indian classrooms. To avoid this, move around the classroom to increase interaction with your students. Increasing proximity allows you to make better eye contact and increases the opportunities for students to speak.
6. Paralinguistic includes vocal elements such as tone, pitch, rhythm, quality of sound, loudness and modulation. For maximum teaching effectiveness, learn to vary these six elements of your voice. One of the major criticisms is of teachers who speak in a monotone. Students perceive these teachers as boring and dull. Students say that they learn less and lose interest more quickly when listening to teachers who have not learned to modulate their voices.
7. Humour is often ignored as a teaching tool, and it is too often not encouraged in school classrooms. Laughter releases stress and tension for both teacher and student. You should develop the ability to laugh at yourself and encourage students to do the same. It promotes a friendly classroom environment that facilitates better learning.
Obviously, adequate knowledge of the subject matter is crucial to your success; however, it's not the only crucial element. Creating a climate, that facilitates learning and retention demands good nonverbal and verbal skills. To improve your nonverbal skills, record your video and watch it yourself or get the help of a colleague or an expert and find suggestions for refinements. Talking in front of a mirror is also an excellent technique to find and correct negative nonverbal gestures.
References:
1. Kyriacou, Chris (2005); “Essential Teaching Skills”; Nelson Thornes Ltd, UK – High Range School Library, TTL, Mattupatti.
2. http://www.blatner.com/adam/level2/nverb2.htm
3. http://www.fhsu.edu/~zhrepic/Teaching/GenEducation/nonverbcom/nonverbcom.htm
Essential Skills for Success in Teaching
Workshop Handout by C. Radhakrishnan
The spirit of being an effective teacher lies in understanding what to do to promote students’ learning and being able to do it. Effective teaching skill is mainly concerned with setting up a learning activity for each student which is successful in bringing about the type of learning the teacher intends. Development of teaching skills depends mainly on teacher’s motivation and professional integrity. Teachers who want to succeed and reach greater heights in this profession should incorporate the following seven essential skills.
1. Planning and Preparation
a. The lesson plan has clear and appropriate aims and objectives.
b. The content methods and structure of the lesson selected are appropriate for the pupil learning intended.
c. The lesson is planned to link up appropriately with past and future lessons.
d. Materials, resources and aids are well prepared and checked in good time.
e. All planning decisions take account of the students and the context.
f. The lesson is designed to elicit and sustain student’s attention, interest and involvement.
2. Lesson Presentation
a. The teacher’s manner is confident, relaxed, self-assured and purposeful, and generates interest in the lesson.
b. The teacher’s instructions and explanations are clear and matched to students’ needs.
c. The teacher’s questions include a variety of types and range and are distributed widely.
d. A variety of appropriate learning activities are used to foster student learning.
e. Students are actively involved in the lesson and are given opportunities to organise their own work.
f. The teacher shows respect and encouragement for students’ ideas and contributions, and fosters their development.
g. The work undertaken by students is well matched to their needs.
h. Materials, resources and aids are used to good effect.
3. Lesson Management
a. The beginning of the lesson is smooth and prompt, and sets up a positive mental set for what is to follow.
b. Student s’ attention, interest and involvement in the lesson are maintained.
c. Students’ progress during the lesson is carefully monitored.
d. Constructive and helpful feedback is given to students to encourage further progress.
e. Transitions between activities are smooth.
f. The time spent on different activities is well managed.
g. The pace and flow of the lesson is adjusted and maintained at an appropriate level throughout the lesson.
h. Adjustments to the lesson plan are made whenever appropriate.
i. The ending of the lesson is used to good effect.
4. Classroom Climate
a. The climate is purposeful, task-oriented, relaxed, and with an established sense of order.
b. Students are supported and encouraged to learn, with high positive expectations conveyed by the teacher.
c. Teacher- student relationships are largely based on mutual respect and rapport.
d. Feedback from the teacher contributes to fostering student self-confidence and self-esteem.
e. The appearance and layout of the class are conducive to positive student attitudes towards the lesson and facilitate the activities taking place.
5. Discipline
a. Good order is largely based on the positive classroom climate established and on good lesson presentation and management.
b. The teacher’s authority is established and accepted by students.
c. Clear rules and expectations regarding pupil behaviour are conveyed by the teacher at appropriate times.
d. Student behaviour is carefully monitored and appropriate actions by the teacher are taken to pre-empt misbehaviour.
e. Students’ misbehaviour is dealt with by an appropriate use of investigation, counselling, academic help, reprimands and punishments.
f. Confrontations are avoided, and skilfully resolved.
6. Assessing pupils’ progress
a. The marking of students’ work during and after lesson is thorough and constructive, and work is returned in good time.
b. Feedback on assessments aims not only to be diagnostic and corrective, but also to encourage further effort and maintain self-confidence, which involves follow-up comments, help or work with particular students as appropriate.
c. A variety of assessment tasks are used, covering both formative and summative purposes.
d. A variety of records of progress are kept.
e. Some opportunities are given to foster students’ own assessments of their work and progress.
f. Assessment of students’ work is used to identify areas of common difficulties, the effectiveness of the teaching, and whether a firm basis for further progress has been established.
g. Assessment is made of the study skills and learning strategies employed by pupils in order to foster their further development.
7. Reflection and evaluation
a. Lessons are evaluated to inform future planning and practice.
b. Current practices are regularly considered with a view to identifying aspect for useful development.
c. Use is made of a variety of ways to reflect upon and evaluate current practice.
d. The teacher regularly reviews whether his or her time and effort can be organised to better effect.
e. The teacher regularly reviews the strategies and techniques he or she uses to deal with sources of stress.
Reference:
1.Kyriacou, Chris - Essential Teaching Skills - Nelson Thornes - The High Range School Library, TTL, Mattupatti.
2.Kyriacou, Chris - Effective Teaching in Schools - Nelson Thornes - The High Range School Library, TTL, Mattupatti.
Happy learning & Teaching!
The spirit of being an effective teacher lies in understanding what to do to promote students’ learning and being able to do it. Effective teaching skill is mainly concerned with setting up a learning activity for each student which is successful in bringing about the type of learning the teacher intends. Development of teaching skills depends mainly on teacher’s motivation and professional integrity. Teachers who want to succeed and reach greater heights in this profession should incorporate the following seven essential skills.
1. Planning and Preparation
a. The lesson plan has clear and appropriate aims and objectives.
b. The content methods and structure of the lesson selected are appropriate for the pupil learning intended.
c. The lesson is planned to link up appropriately with past and future lessons.
d. Materials, resources and aids are well prepared and checked in good time.
e. All planning decisions take account of the students and the context.
f. The lesson is designed to elicit and sustain student’s attention, interest and involvement.
2. Lesson Presentation
a. The teacher’s manner is confident, relaxed, self-assured and purposeful, and generates interest in the lesson.
b. The teacher’s instructions and explanations are clear and matched to students’ needs.
c. The teacher’s questions include a variety of types and range and are distributed widely.
d. A variety of appropriate learning activities are used to foster student learning.
e. Students are actively involved in the lesson and are given opportunities to organise their own work.
f. The teacher shows respect and encouragement for students’ ideas and contributions, and fosters their development.
g. The work undertaken by students is well matched to their needs.
h. Materials, resources and aids are used to good effect.
3. Lesson Management
a. The beginning of the lesson is smooth and prompt, and sets up a positive mental set for what is to follow.
b. Student s’ attention, interest and involvement in the lesson are maintained.
c. Students’ progress during the lesson is carefully monitored.
d. Constructive and helpful feedback is given to students to encourage further progress.
e. Transitions between activities are smooth.
f. The time spent on different activities is well managed.
g. The pace and flow of the lesson is adjusted and maintained at an appropriate level throughout the lesson.
h. Adjustments to the lesson plan are made whenever appropriate.
i. The ending of the lesson is used to good effect.
4. Classroom Climate
a. The climate is purposeful, task-oriented, relaxed, and with an established sense of order.
b. Students are supported and encouraged to learn, with high positive expectations conveyed by the teacher.
c. Teacher- student relationships are largely based on mutual respect and rapport.
d. Feedback from the teacher contributes to fostering student self-confidence and self-esteem.
e. The appearance and layout of the class are conducive to positive student attitudes towards the lesson and facilitate the activities taking place.
5. Discipline
a. Good order is largely based on the positive classroom climate established and on good lesson presentation and management.
b. The teacher’s authority is established and accepted by students.
c. Clear rules and expectations regarding pupil behaviour are conveyed by the teacher at appropriate times.
d. Student behaviour is carefully monitored and appropriate actions by the teacher are taken to pre-empt misbehaviour.
e. Students’ misbehaviour is dealt with by an appropriate use of investigation, counselling, academic help, reprimands and punishments.
f. Confrontations are avoided, and skilfully resolved.
6. Assessing pupils’ progress
a. The marking of students’ work during and after lesson is thorough and constructive, and work is returned in good time.
b. Feedback on assessments aims not only to be diagnostic and corrective, but also to encourage further effort and maintain self-confidence, which involves follow-up comments, help or work with particular students as appropriate.
c. A variety of assessment tasks are used, covering both formative and summative purposes.
d. A variety of records of progress are kept.
e. Some opportunities are given to foster students’ own assessments of their work and progress.
f. Assessment of students’ work is used to identify areas of common difficulties, the effectiveness of the teaching, and whether a firm basis for further progress has been established.
g. Assessment is made of the study skills and learning strategies employed by pupils in order to foster their further development.
7. Reflection and evaluation
a. Lessons are evaluated to inform future planning and practice.
b. Current practices are regularly considered with a view to identifying aspect for useful development.
c. Use is made of a variety of ways to reflect upon and evaluate current practice.
d. The teacher regularly reviews whether his or her time and effort can be organised to better effect.
e. The teacher regularly reviews the strategies and techniques he or she uses to deal with sources of stress.
Reference:
1.Kyriacou, Chris - Essential Teaching Skills - Nelson Thornes - The High Range School Library, TTL, Mattupatti.
2.Kyriacou, Chris - Effective Teaching in Schools - Nelson Thornes - The High Range School Library, TTL, Mattupatti.
Happy learning & Teaching!
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